Pollard, A. M., Heron, C. & Gillard, R. D. in Archaeological Chemistry (eds A. Mark Pollard, C Heron, & R. D. Gillard) 7, 235-269 (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2008).
Al-Hassani, S. T. S., Woodcock, E., Saoud, R., Foundation for Science, T. & Civilisation. 1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World. (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, 2007).
Alén, R. & Yhdistys, S. P.-i. Biorefining of Forest Resources. (Paper Engineers’ Association/Paperi ja Puu Oy, 2011).
Aleo, A. et al. A multi-analytical approach reveals flexible compound adhesive technology at Steenbokfontein Cave, Western Cape. J. Archaeol. Sci. 167, 105997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2024.105997 (2024).
Barnes, T. M. & Greive, K. A. Topical pine tar: History, properties and use as a treatment for common skin conditions. Australas. J. Dermatol 58, 80–85, https://doi.org/10.1111/ajd.12427 (2017).
Hennius, A. Viking Age tar production and outland exploitation. Antiquity 92, 1349–1361, https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2018.22 (2018).
Tintner, J. et al. Pitch oil production – An intangible cultural heritage in Central Europe. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 159, 105309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105309 (2021).
Mazza, P. P. A. et al. A new Palaeolithic discovery: tar-hafted stone tools in a European Mid-Pleistocene bone-bearing bed. J. Archaeol. Sci. 33, 1310–1318, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2006.01.006 (2006).
Siemssen, T., Hearne, K. & Rigterink, S. Midge-Infested Wetlands and. Coevol. Birch Tar. Use Late Pleistocene Neanderthals https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.118226 (2024).
Nordby, C. C. in Holding it all together: Ancient and modern approaches to joining, repair and consolidation (eds Ambers J., C. Higgitt, L. Harrison, & D. Saunders) p. 54-60 (Archetype 2009).
Meiggs, R. Trees and Timber in the Ancient Mediterranean World. 2009/02/16 edn, 34 (Clarendon Press, 1982).
Regert, M. et al. Birch-bark tar in the Roman world: the persistence of an ancient craft tradition?. Antiquity 93, 1553–1568, https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2019.167 (2019).
Łucejko, J., Connan, J., Orsini, S., Ribechini, E. & Modugno, F. Chemical analyses of Egyptian mummification balms and organic residues from storage jars dated from the Old Kingdom to the Copto-Byzantine period. J. Archaeol. Sci. 85, 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2017.06.015 (2017).
Evershed, R. P. & Clark, K. A. in The Handbook of Mummy Studies: New Frontiers in Scientific and Cultural Perspectives (eds DH Shin & R Bianucci) 653-715 (Springer Singapore, 2021).
Metwaly, A. M. et al. Traditional ancient Egyptian medicine: A review. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 28, 5823–5832, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.06.044 (2021).
Pliny (the Elder). in libri XII-XVI IV (Heinemann, 1960).
Modugno, F., Ribechini, E. & Colombini, M. P. Chemical study of triterpenoid resinous materials in archaeological findings by means of direct exposure electron ionisation mass spectrometry and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 20, 1787–1800, https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.2507 (2006).
Pollard, A. M., Batt, C. M., Stern, B. & Young, S. M. M. Analytical Chemistry in Archaeology. (Cambridge University Press, 2007).
Pollard, A. M. & Heron, C. Archaeological Chemistry. (RSC Publishing, 2008).
Rageot, M. et al. Management systems of adhesive materials throughout the Neolithic in the North-West Mediterranean. J. Archaeol. Sci. 126, 105309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2020.105309 (2021).
Colombini, M. P., Giachi, G., Modugno, F. & Ribechini, E. Characterisation of organic residues in pottery vessels of the Roman age from Antinoe (Egypt). Microchem. J. 79, 83–90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2004.05.004 (2005).
Pecci, A., Cau Ontiveros, M. Á & Garnier, N. Identifying wine and oil production: analysis of residues from Roman and Late Antique plastered vats. J. Archaeol. Sci. 40, 4491–4498, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.019 (2013).
Pecci, A. et al. Wine consumption in Bronze Age Italy: Combining organic residue analysis, botanical data and ceramic variability. J. Archaeol. Sci. 123, 105256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2020.105256 (2020).
Egenberg, I. M., Holtekjølen, A. K. & Lundanes, E. Characterisation of naturally and artificially weathered pine tar coatings by visual assessment and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Cult. Herit. 4, 221–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1296-2074(03)00048-7 (2003).
Lindblad, L., Fredriksson, N. & Källbom, A. Challenges in Pine Tar Production and Practices for Sustainable Preservation of Swedish Wooden Heritage. (2021).
Ebert, B. Learning from the Past: Rediscovering Traditional Medieval Wood Tar Adhesives for Sustainable Stone Conservation and Built Heritage. Stud. Conserv. 69, 63–71, https://doi.org/10.1080/00393630.2024.2339728 (2024).
Ebert, B. & Bjelland, T. in Working Towards a Sustainable Past (ed J. Bridgland) 1-9 (ICOM-CC, 2023).
Atzbach, R. in Castles at War : The Danish Castle Research Association “Magt, Borg og Landskab” (eds R Atzbach, L Meldgaard Sass Jensen, & L Plith Lauritsen) (Dr. Rudolf Habelt, 2015).
Demuth, V. NOTHAW – ein hansischer Hafen bei Avaldsnes an einer maritimen Schlüsselstelle der norwegischen Westküste. Skyllis 23, 14–24 (2023).
Colombini, M. P., Giachi, G., Modugno, F., Pallecchi, P. & Ribechini, E. The characterization of paints and waterproofing materials from the shipwrecks found at the archaeological site of the Etruscan and Roman harbour of Pisa (Italy). Archaeometry 45, 659–674, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1475-4754.2003.00135.x (2003).
Ravn, M. Viking-Age War Fleets: Shipbuilding, resource management and maritime warfare in 11th-century Denmark Maritime Culture of the North 4. Int. J. Nautical Archaeol. 46, 226–227, https://doi.org/10.1111/1095-9270.12231 (2017).
Loewen, B. Resinous Paying Materials in the French Atlantic, AD 1500–1800. History, Technology, Substances. Int. J. Nautical Archaeol. 34, 238–252, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2005.00057.x (2005).
Moll, F. The history of wood-preserving in shipbuilding. Mar. ’s. Mirror 12, 357–374, https://doi.org/10.1080/00253359.1926.10655387 (1926).
Heginbotham, A. & Schilling, M. in East Asian Lacquer: Material Culture, Science and Conservation (eds S Rivers, R Faulkner, & B Pretzel) 92-106 (Archetype Publications, 2011).
Schilling, M. R., Heginbotham, A., van Keulen, H. & Szelewski, M. Beyond the basics: A systematic approach for comprehensive analysis of organic materials in Asian lacquers. Stud. Conserv. 61, 3–27, https://doi.org/10.1080/00393630.2016.1230978 (2016).
Mills, J. S. & White, R. Natural Resins of Art and Archaeology Their Sources, Chemistry, and Identification. Stud. Conserv. 22, 12–31, https://doi.org/10.2307/1505670 (1977).
Kasprzok, L., Fabbri, D., Rombolà, A. G., Rovetta, T. & Malagodi, M. Identification of organic materials in historical stringed instruments by off-line analytical pyrolysis solid-phase microextraction with on-fiber silylation and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 145, 104727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2019.104727 (2020).
Rovetta, T. et al. The case of Antonio Stradivari 1718 ex-San Lorenzo violin: History, restorations and conservation perspectives. J. Archaeol. Sci.: Rep. 23, 443–450, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.11.010 (2019).
Langenheim, J. H. Plant resins: Chemistry, Evolution, Ecology, and Ethnobotany (Timber Press Inc., 2003).
Seyfullah, L. J. et al. Production and preservation of resins – past and present. Biol. Rev. 93, 1684–1714, https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12414 (2018).
Celedon, J. M. & Bohlmann, J. Oleoresin defenses in conifers: chemical diversity, terpene synthases and limitations of oleoresin defense under climate change. N. Phytol. 224, 1444–1463, https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15984 (2019).
Messina, F. et al. Diterpenoids and triterpenoids from the resin of Bursera microphylla and their cytotoxic activity. J. Nat. Prod. 78, 1184–1188, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00112 (2015).
Duce, C. et al. Thermal degradation chemistry of archaeological pine pitch containing beeswax as an additive. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 111, 254–264, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2014.10.020 (2015).
Colombini, M. P. & Modugno, F. in Organic Mass Spectrometry in Art and Archaeology 1-36 (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.), 2009).
Connan, J. & Nissenbaum, A. Conifer tar on the keel and hull planking of the Ma’agan Mikhael Ship (Israel, 5th century BC): identification and comparison with natural products and artefacts employed in boat construction. J. Archaeol. Sci. 30, 709–719, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-4403(02)00243-1 (2003).
Bailly, L., Adam, P., Charrié, A. & Connan, J. Identification of alkyl guaiacyl dehydroabietates as novel markers of wood tar from Pinaceae in archaeological samples. Org. Geochem. 100, 80–88, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2016.07.009 (2016).
van der Doelen, G. A., van den Berg, K. J. & Boon, J. J. Comparative Chromatographic and Mass-Spectrometric Studies of Triterpenoid Varnishes: Fresh Material and Aged Samples from Paintings. Stud. Conserv. 43, 249–264, https://doi.org/10.2307/1506734 (1998).
Perveen, S. & Al-Taweel, A. Terpenes and Terpenoids. (IntechOpen, 2018).
Dimitrakoudi, E. A. et al. Characterization by Gas Chromatography—Mass Spectrometry of Diterpenoid Resinous Materials in Roman-Age Amphorae from Northern Greece. Eur. J. Mass Spectrom. 17, 581–591, https://doi.org/10.1255/ejms.1155 (2011).
Meyers, P. A., Leenheer, M. J. & Bourbonniere, R. A. Diagenesis of vascular plant organic matter components during burial in lake sediments. Aquat. Geochem. 1, 35–52, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01025230 (1995).
Leppänen, H., Kukkonen, J. V. K. & Oikari, A. O. J. Concentration of retene and resin acids in sedimenting particles collected from a bleached kraft mill effluent receiving lake. Water Res 34, 1604–1610, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(99)00313-9 (2000).
Grötzinger, K., Birkemeyer, C., Kuzminska, M. & Rauwald, H. Isolation and identification of antispirochetal labdane-type manoyloxides from Cistus creticus L. by novel TLC-extractor/MS and GC/MS. Planta Med. 76, P245, https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0030-1264543 (2010).
Saitta, E. T. & Kaye, T. G. Experimental maturation of pine resin in sediment to investigate the formation of synthetic copal and amber. Sci. Rep. 15, 7627. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-89448-5 (2025).
Scalarone, D., Lazzari, M. & Chiantore, O. Ageing behaviour and analytical pyrolysis characterisation of diterpenic resins used as art materials: Manila copal and sandarac. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 68-69, 115–136, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(03)00005-6 (2003).
Simoneit, B. R. T., Cox, R. E., Oros, D. R. & Otto, A. Terpenoid Compositions of Resins from Callitris Species (Cupressaceae). Molecules 23, 3384, https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23123384 (2018).
Scalarone, D., Lazzari, M. & Chiantore, O. Ageing behaviour and pyrolytic characterisation of diterpenic resins used as art materials: colophony and Venice turpentine. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 64, 345–361, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(02)00046-3 (2002).
Dietemann, P., Miller, K. V., Höpker, C. & Baumer, U. On the Use and Differentiation of Resins from Pinaceae Species in European Artworks Based on Written Sources, Reconstructions and Analysis. Stud. Conserv. 64, S62–S73, https://doi.org/10.1080/00393630.2019.1568678 (2019).
Rauwald, H. W., Liebold, T., Grötzinger, K., Lehmann, J. & Kuchta, K. Labdanum and Labdanes of Cistus creticus and C. ladanifer: Anti-Borrelia activity and its phytochemical profiling✰. Phytomedicine 60, 152977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2019.152977 (2019).
De Pascual Teresa, J., Urones, J. G., Marcos, I. S., Barcala, P. B. & Garrido, N. M. Diterpenoid and other components of Cistus laurifolius. Phytochemistry 25, 1185–1187, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)81577-0 (1986).
Mathe, C., Culioli, G., Archier, P. & Vieillescazes, C. High-Performance Liquid Chromatographic Analysis of Triterpenoids in Commercial Frankincense. Chromatographia 60, 493–499, https://doi.org/10.1365/s10337-004-0417-3 (2004).
Xu, C., Wang, B., Pu, Y., Tao, J. & Zhang, T. Techniques for the analysis of pentacyclic triterpenoids in medicinal plants. J. Sep. Sci. 41, 6–19, https://doi.org/10.1002/jssc.201700201 (2018).
Mannino, G., Occhipinti, A. & Maffei, M. E. Quantitative Determination of 3-O-Acetyl-11-Keto-βBoswellic Acid (AKBA) and Other Boswellic Acids in Boswellia sacra Flueck (syn. B. carteri Birdw) and Boswellia serrata Roxb. Molecules 21, 1329, https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21101329 (2016).
Hanus, L. O., Rezanka, T., Dembitsky, V. M. & Moussaieff, A. Myrrh-Commiphora chemistry. Biomed. Pap. Med Fac. Univ. Palacky. Olomouc Czech Repub. 149, 3–27, https://doi.org/10.5507/bp.2005.001 (2005).
Colombini, M. P., Modugno, F., Silvano, F. & Onor, M. Characterization of the Balm of an Egyptian Mummy from the seventh century B.C. Stud. Conserv. 45, 19–29, https://doi.org/10.2307/1506680 (2000).
Dufour, A. et al. Comparison of two methods of measuring wood pyrolysis tar. J. Chromatogr. A 1164, 240–247, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2007.06.049 (2007).
Izzo, F. C., Zendri, E., Bernardi, A., Balliana, E. & Sgobbi, M. The study of pitch via gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy: the case of the Roman amphoras from Monte Poro, Calabria (Italy). J. Archaeol. Sci. 40, 595–600, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.06.017 (2013).
Alén, R. in Chemistry for Biomass Utilization 200-251 (De Gruyter, 2024).
Nicholson, P. & Shaw, I. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. 105 (Cambridge University Press, 2009).
Schmidt, P. et al. Production method of the Königsaue birch tar documents cumulative culture in Neanderthals. Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 15, 84, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-023-01789-2 (2023).
Rageot, M. et al. Birch bark tar production: Experimental and biomolecular approaches to the study of a common and widely used prehistoric adhesive. J. Archaeol. Method Theory 26, 276–312, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-018-9372-4 (2019).
Risbøl, O., Hennius, A. & Hennius, J. S. Socio-economic aspects of early iron age wood tar production in Scandinavia. J. Field Archaeol. 1-11 https://doi.org/10.1080/00934690.2025.2525682 (2025).
Schmidt, P. et al. Birch tar production does not prove Neanderthal behavioral complexity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 116, 17707–17711, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1911137116 (2019).
Paghdal, K. V. & Schwartz, R. A. Topical tar: back to the future. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol 61, 294–302, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2008.11.024 (2009).
Davara, J., Jambrina-Enríquez, M., Rodríguez de Vera, C., Herrera-Herrera, A. V. & Mallol, C. Pyrotechnology and lipid biomarker variability in pine tar production. Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 15, 133, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-023-01829-x (2023).
Egenberg, I. M., Aasen, J. A. B., Holtekjølen, A. K. & Lundanes, E. Characterisation of traditionally kiln produced pine tar by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 62, 143–155, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(01)00112-7 (2002).
Robinson, N., Evershed, R. P., Higgs, W. J., Jerman, K. & Eglinton, G. Proof of a pine wood origin for pitch from Tudor (Mary Rose) and Etruscan shipwrecks: application of analytical organic chemistry in archaeology. Analyst 112, 637–644, https://doi.org/10.1039/AN9871200637 (1987).
Kurt, Y., Suleyman Kaçar, M. & Isik, K. Traditional Tar Production from Cedrus libani A. Rich on the Taurus Mountains in Southern Turkey. Econ. Bot. 62, 615–620, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-008-9023-x (2008).
Kurt, Y. & Isik, K. Comparison of Tar Produced by Traditional and Laboratory Methods. Stud. Ethno-Med. 6, 77–83, https://doi.org/10.1080/09735070.2012.11886423 (2012).
Hua, Y., Bentley, M. D., Cole, B. J. W., Murray, K. D. & Alford, A. R. Triterpenes from the Outer Bark of Betula nigra. J. Wood Chem. Technol. 11, 503–516, https://doi.org/10.1080/02773819108051090 (1991).
Witte, L. in Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (eds H Ferdinand Linskens & J F. Jackson) 134-145 (Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1986).
Schmidt, P. & Koch, T. J. The molecular composition of birch tar and its infrared spectrum. Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 16, 193, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-024-02102-5 (2024).
Perthuison, J., Schaeffer, P., Debels, P., Galant, P. & Adam, P. Betulin-related esters from birch bark tar: Identification, origin and archaeological significance. Org. Geochem. 139, 103944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2019.103944 (2020).
Kozowyk, P. R. B., Baron, L. I. & Langejans, G. H. J. Identifying Palaeolithic birch tar production techniques: challenges from an experimental biomolecular approach. Sci. Rep. 13, 14727. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41898-5 (2023).
Prati, S., Sciutto, G., Bonacini, I. & Mazzeo, R. New Frontiers in Application of FTIR Microscopy for Characterization of Cultural Heritage Materials. Top. Curr. Chem. 374, 26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41061-016-0025-3 (2016).
Prati, S., Sciutto, G., Mazzeo, R., Torri, C. & Fabbri, D. Application of ATR-far-infrared spectroscopy to the analysis of natural resins. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 399, 3081–3091, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-010-4388-y (2011).
Shillito, L. M., Almond, M. J., Wicks, K., Marshall, L.-J. R. & Matthews, W. The use of FT-IR as a screening technique for organic residue analysis of archaeological samples. Anal. Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc.: Basics Appl. 72, 120–125, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2008.08.016 (2009).
Natkaniec-Nowak, L., Drzewicz, P., Stach, P., Mroczkowska-Szerszeń, M. & Żukowska, G. The overview of analytical methods for studying of fossil natural resins. Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 54, 2754–2776, https://doi.org/10.1080/10408347.2023.2200855 (2024).
Lucejko, J. J., Lluveras-Tenorio, A., Modugno, F., Ribechini, E. & Colombini, M. P. An analytical approach based on x-ray diffraction, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to characterize Egyptian embalming materials. Microchem. J. 103, 110–118, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2012.01.014 (2012).
Brody, R. H., Edwards, H. G. & Pollard, A. M. Fourier Transform-Raman spectroscopic study of natural resins of archaeological interest. Biopolymers 67, 129–141, https://doi.org/10.1002/bip.10059 (2002).
Daher, C., Paris, C., Le Hô, A.-S., Bellot-Gurlet, L. & Échard, J.-P. A joint use of Raman and infrared spectroscopies for the identification of natural organic media used in ancient varnishes. J. Raman Spectrosc. 41, 1494–1499, https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.2693 (2010).
Edwards, H. G. M. & Ali, E. M. A. Raman spectroscopy of archaeological and ancient resins: Problems with database construction for applications in conservation and historical provenancing. Anal. Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc.: Basics Appl. 80, 49–54, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2011.01.030 (2011).
Nafie, L. A. Recent advances in linear and nonlinear Raman spectroscopy. Part XIV. J. Raman Spectrosc. 51, 2354–2376, https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.6025 (2020).
Bruni, S. & Guglielmi, V. Identification of archaeological triterpenic resins by the non-separative techniques FTIR and 13C NMR: The case of Pistacia resin (mastic) in comparison with frankincense. Anal. Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc.: Basics Appl. 121, 613–622, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2013.10.098 (2014).
Lambert, J. B., Wu, Y., Kozminski, M. A. & Santiago-Blay, J. A. Characterization of eucalyptus and chemically related exudates by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Aust. J. Chem. 60, 862–870, https://doi.org/10.1071/CH07163 (2007).
Lambert, J. B., Wu, Y. & Santiago-Blay, J. A. Taxonomic and chemical relationships revealed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of plant exudates. J. Nat. Prod. 68, 635–648, https://doi.org/10.1021/np050005f (2005).
Silva, E. O., Tavares, M. I. B., Bathista, A. L. B. S., Filho, N. P. & Nogueira, J. S. High-resolution carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance study of natural resins. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 86, 1848–1854, https://doi.org/10.1002/app.11099 (2002).
Spinella, A., Chillura Martino, D. F. & Meo, P. L. in The Environment in a Magnet: Applications of NMR Techniques to Environmental Problems Vol. 32 (eds P Conte, D F Chillura Martino, & P Lo Meo) 381 – 398 380 (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2024).
Favvas, E. P., Kouvelos, E. P., Papageorgiou, S. K., Tsanaktsidis, C. G. & Mitropoulos, A. C. Characterization of natural resin materials using water adsorption and various advanced techniques. Appl. Phys. A 119, 735–743, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-015-9022-6 (2015).
Despotopoulou, M. et al. Testing non-destructive spectrometric methods for the identification and distinction of archaeological pine wood tar and birch bark tar. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 56, 104571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104571 (2024).
Cartoni, G., Russo, M. V., Spinelli, F. & Talarico, F. G. C.-M. S. characterization and identification of natural terpenic resins employed in works of art. Ann. di Chim. 94, 767–782, https://doi.org/10.1002/adic.200490098 (2004).
Mompo, M. et al. Setting up a natural resin collection to identify an archaeological black pitch sample. ACTA IMEKO 13, 1–6, https://doi.org/10.21014/actaimeko.v13i2.1834 (2024).
Otto, A. & Simoneit, B. R. T. Chemosystematics and diagenesis of terpenoids in fossil conifer species and sediment from the Eocene Zeitz formation, Saxony, Germany. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 65, 3505–3527, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(01)00693-7 (2001).
Otto, A., Simoneit, B. R. T. & Rember, W. C. Resin compounds from the seed cones of three fossil conifer species from the Miocene Clarkia flora, Emerald Creek, Idaho, USA, and from related extant species. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 126, 225–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-6667(03)00088-5 (2003).
Ribechini, E., Modugno, F., Baraldi, C., Baraldi, P. & Colombini, M. P. An integrated analytical approach for characterizing an organic residue from an archaeological glass bottle recovered in Pompeii (Naples, Italy). Talanta 74, 555–561, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2007.06.026 (2008).
Ribechini, E., Modugno, F., Colombini, M. P. & Evershed, R. P. Gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric investigations of organic residues from Roman glass unguentaria. J. Chromatogr. A 1183, 158–169, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2007.12.090 (2008).
Thurman, E. M. in Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry 90 (eds Imma Ferrer & E. Michael Thurman) 197-233 (Elsevier, 2020).
Lebedev, A. T., Polyakova, O. V., Artaev, V. B., Mednikova, M. B. & Anokhina, E. A. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry with complementary ionization methods in the study of 5000-year-old mummy. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 35, e9058. https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.9058 (2021).
Zhu, Y. et al. Characterization of nitrogen-containing compounds in coal tar and its subfractions by comprehensive two-dimensional GC × GC-TOF and ESI FT-ICR mass spectrometry based on new separation method. Fuel Process. Technol. 227, 107125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2021.107125 (2022).
Barberis, E., Manfredi, M., Ferraris, E., Bianucci, R. & Marengo, E. Non-invasive paleo-metabolomics and paleo-proteomics analyses reveal the complex funerary treatment of the early 18th dynasty dignitary NEBIRI (QV30). Molecules 27, 7208, https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27217208 (2022).
Chiavari, G., Fabbri, D., Mazzeo, R., Bocchini, P. & Galletti, G. C. Pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of natural resins used for artistic objects. Chromatographia 41, 273–281, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02688040 (1995).
Puchinger, L., Sauter, F., Leder, S. & Varmuza, K. Studies in organic archaeometry VII – differentiation of wood and bark pitches by pyrolysis capillary gas chromatography (PY-CGC). Ann. di Chim. 97, 513–525, https://doi.org/10.1002/adic.200790034 (2007).
Ribechini, E., Bacchiocchi, M., Deviese, T. & Colombini, M. P. Analytical pyrolysis with in situ thermally assisted derivatisation, Py(HMDS)-GC/MS, for the chemical characterization of archaeological birch bark tar. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 91, 219–223, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2011.02.011 (2011).
Ribechini, E., Orsini, S., Silvano, F. & Colombini, M. P. Py-GC/MS, GC/MS and FTIR investigations on Late Roman-Egyptian adhesives from opus sectile: New insights into ancient recipes and technologies. Anal. Chim. Acta 638, 79–87, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2009.02.004 (2009).
Scalarone, D. & Chiantore, O. in Organic Mass Spectrometry in Art and Archaeology 327-361 (2009).
van der Doelen, G. A. et al. Analysis of fresh triterpenoid resins and aged triterpenoid varnishes by high-performance liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation (tandem) mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A 809, 21–37, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(98)00186-1 (1998).
Dell’mour, M., Findeisen, A., Kaml, I., Baatz, W. & Kenndler, E. Capillary Electrophoresis as Analytical Method for the Characterisation of Natural Diterpenoid Resins in Artistic and Historic Works: A Comparison with Gas Chromatography. The Open Analytical Chem. J. 2 (2008). https://doi.org/10.2174/1874065000802010067
Findeisen, A., Kolivoska, V., Kaml, I., Baatz, W. & Kenndler, E. Analysis of diterpenoic compounds in natural resins applied as binders in museum objects by capillary electrophoresis. J. Chromatogr. A 1157, 454–461, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2007.05.010 (2007).
Bonaduce, I. et al. Terpenoid Oligomers of Dammar Resin. J. Nat. Prod https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00916 (2016).
Colombini, M. P., Modugno, F. & Ribechini, E. Direct exposure electron ionization mass spectrometry and gas chromatography / mass spectrometry techniques to study organic coatings on archaeological amphorae. J. Mass Spectrom. 40, 675–687, https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.841 (2005).
Choi, K. H. et al. Molecular-level investigation of coal-tar pitch treated by air blowing: Revealing the restructure of aromatic compounds via radical reactions. Carbon 203, 377–385, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2022.11.022 (2023).
Prokes, L. & Hložek, M. Identification of some adhesives and wood pyrolysis products of archaeological origin by direct inlet mass spectrometry. Chem. Anal. (Wars., Pol.) 52, 700–713 (2007).
Teearu, A. et al. Method development for the analysis of resinous materials with MALDI-FT-ICR-MS: novel internal standards and a new matrix material for negative ion mode. J. Mass Spectrom. 52, 603–617, https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.3943 (2017).
Vahur, S. et al. Analysis of dammar resin with MALDI-FT-ICR-MS and APCI-FT-ICR-MS. J. Mass Spectrom. 47, 392–409, https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.2971 (2012).
Zhang, W., Andersson, J. T., Räder, H. J. & Müllen, K. Molecular characterization of large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in solid petroleum pitch and coal tar pitch by high resolution MALDI ToF MS and insights from ion mobility separation. Carbon 95, 672–680, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2015.08.057 (2015).
Martín, Y., García, R., Solé, R. A. & Moinelo, S. R. Structural characterization of coal tar pitches obtained by heat treatment under different conditions. Energy Fuels 10, 436–442, https://doi.org/10.1021/ef950208j (1996).
Nevin, A. et al. Assessment of the ageing of triterpenoid paint varnishes using fluorescence, Raman and FTIR spectroscopy. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 395, 2139–2149, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-009-3005-4 (2009).
Casadio, F., Daher, C. & Bellot-Gurlet, L. Raman spectroscopy of cultural heritage Materials: Overview of applications and new frontiers in instrumentation, sampling modalities, and data processing. Top. Curr. Chem. 374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41061-016-0061-z (2016).
de Faria, D. L. A. & Edwards, H. G. M. in Raman Spectroscopy in Archaeology and Art History: Volume 2 (eds P Vandenabeele & H Edwards) 314-343 (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2018).
Vandenabeele, P. et al. Analysis with micro-Raman spectroscopy of natural organic binding media and varnishes used in art. Anal. Chim. Acta 407, 261–274, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-2670(99)00827-2 (2000).
Edwards, H. G. M., Vandenabeele, P. & Colomban, P. in Raman Spectroscopy in Cultural Heritage Preservation 1-5 (Springer International Publishing, 2023).
Ciofini, D., Striova, J., Camaiti, M. & Siano, S. Photo-oxidative kinetics of solvent and oil-based terpenoid varnishes. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 123, 47–61, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2015.11.002 (2016).
Piña-Torres, C. et al. An analytical strategy based on Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, principal component analysis and linear discriminant analysis to suggest the botanical origin of resins from Bursera. Application to archaeological Aztec Samples. J. Cult. Herit. 33, 48–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2018.02.006 (2018).
Prati, S. et al. Evaluation of the effect of six different paint cross section preparation methods on the performances of Fourier Transformed Infrared microscopy in attenuated total reflection mode. Microchem. J. 103, 79–89, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2012.01.007 (2012).
Bernardinelli, O. D., Novotny, E. E., de Azevêdo, E. R. & Colnago, L. A. in Analytical Techniques and Methods for Biomass (ed S Vaz Jr) 147-176 (Springer Nature Switzerland, 2025).
Spyros, A. in Modern Magnetic Resonance (ed Graham A. Webb) 221-232 (Springer International Publishing, 2018).
Ghisalberti, E. L. & Godfrey, I. M. Application of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to the analysis of organic archaeological materials. Stud. Conserv. 43, 215–230, https://doi.org/10.2307/1506731 (1998).
Lambert, J. B. et al. Characterization of phenolic plant exudates by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J. Nat. Prod. 84, 2511–2524, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.1c00522 (2021).
Tanasi, D., Greco, E., Pisciotta, F. & Hassam, S. Chemical characterization of organic residues on Late Roman amphorae from shipwrecks off the coast of Marsala (Trapani, Italy). J. Archaeol. Sci.: Rep. 40, 103241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103241 (2021).
Sauter, F. & Puchinger, L. Archaeometry of birch bark pitch. Archaologisches Korrespondenzblatt 48, 595–604, https://doi.org/10.11588/ak.2018.4.75396 (2018).
Lambert, J. B., Heckenbach, E. A., Wu, Y. & Santiago-Blay, J. A. Characterization of plant exudates by principal-component and cluster analyses with nuclear magnetic resonance variables. J. Nat. Prod. 73, 1643–1648, https://doi.org/10.1021/np100318n (2010).
High, K. E. & Penkman, K. E. H. A review of analytical methods for assessing preservation in waterlogged archaeological wood and their application in practice. Herit. Sci. 8, 83. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-020-00422-y (2020).
Turi, E. A. Thermal Characterization of Polymeric Materials. (Academic Press, 1981).
Maines, C. A. & de la Rie, E. R. Size-exclusion chromatography and differential scanning calorimetry of low molecular weight resins used as varnishes for paintings. Prog. Org. Coat. 52, 39–45, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2004.06.006 (2005).
Odlyha, M. in Handbook of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry Vol. 2 (eds Michael E. Brown & Patrick K. Gallagher) 47-96 (Elsevier Science B.V., 2003).
Pires, J. & Cruz, A. J. Techniquesof thermal analysis applied to the study of cultural heritage. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 87, 411–415, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-004-6775-0 (2007).
Ion, R. M. & Vasilievici, G. Thermoanalytical analysis of sacidava ceramics. Sci. Bull. Valahia Univ. – Mater. Mech. 21, 18–22, https://doi.org/10.2478/bsmm-2025-0003 (2025).
Ion, R. M. et al. Thermal and mineralogical investigations of historical ceramic. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 104, 487–493, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-011-1517-6 (2011).
Ion, R.-M. et al. Thermal analysis of Romanian ancient ceramics. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 102, 393–398, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-009-0226-x (2010).
Biroš, J., Larina, T., Trekoval, J. & Pouchlý, J. Dependence of the glass transition temperature of poly (methyl methacrylates) on their tacticity. Colloid Polym. Sci. 260, 27–30, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01447672 (1982).
Schilling, M. R. The glass transition of materials used in conservation. Stud. Conserv. 34, 110–116, https://doi.org/10.2307/1506226 (1989).
De Falco, F. et al. A thermoanalytical insight into the composition of biodegradable polymers and commercial products by EGA-MS and Py-GC-MS. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 171, 105937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2023.105937 (2023).
Cabaret, T., Boulicaud, B., Chatet, E. & Charrier, B. Study of rosin softening point through thermal treatment for a better understanding of maritime pine exudation. Eur. J. Wood Wood Products 76, 1453–1459, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-018-1339-3 (2018).
Coppola, M. E. et al. Pinaceae pine resins (black pine, shore pine, rosin, and baltic amber) as natural dielectrics for low operating voltage, hysteresis-free, organic field effect transistors. Glob. Chall. 7, 2300062. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.202300062 (2023).
Frances, M. et al. Effect of heat treatment on Pinus pinaster rosin: A study of physico chemical changes and influence on the quality of rosin linseed oil varnish. Ind. Crops Prod. 155, 112789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112789 (2020).
Cabaret, T., Gardere, Y., Frances, M., Leroyer, L. & Charrier, B. Measuring interactions between rosin and turpentine during the drying process for a better understanding of exudation in maritime pine wood used as outdoor siding. Ind. Crops Prod. 130, 325–331, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.12.080 (2019).
Pagacz, J., Naglik, B., Stach, P., Drzewicz, P. & Natkaniec-Nowak, L. Maturation process of natural resins recorded in their thermal properties. J. Mater. Sci. 55, 4504–4523, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-04302-0 (2020).
Pagacz, J., Stach, P., Natkaniec-Nowak, L., Naglik, B. & Drzewicz, P. Preliminary thermal characterization of natural resins from different botanical sources and geological environments. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 138, 4279–4288, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-019-08157-0 (2019).
Calà, E. et al. The characterization of natural resins and a study of their degradation in interactions with zinc oxide pigment. Materials 17, 5416, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225416 (2024).
Jablonski, P., Golloch, A. & Borchard, W. DSC-measurements of amber and resin samples. Thermochim. Acta 333, 87–93, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-6031(99)00101-X (1999).
Bertelli, I., Mattonai, M., La Nasa, J. & Ribechini, E. Study of thermal behavior and molecular composition of mixtures of resinous materials and beeswax found as adhesives in archaeological finds. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 171, 105936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2023.105936 (2023).
Peters, K. E., Walters, C. C. & Moldowan, J. M. The Biomarker Guide: Volume 2: Biomarkers and Isotopes in the Petroleum Exploration and earth History. 2 edn, 2 (Cambridge University Press, 2005).
Ribechini, E., Mangani, F. & Colombini, M. P. Chemical investigation of barks from broad-leaved tree species using EGA-MS and GC/MS. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 114, 235–242, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2015.06.001 (2015).
Koch, T. J. et al. Chemical analyses reveal dual functionality of Early Mesolithic birch tar at Krzyż Wielkopolski (Poland). J. Archaeol. Sci.: Rep. 57, 104591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104591 (2024).
Colombini, M. P., Andreotti, A., Bonaduce, I., Modugno, F. & Ribechini, E. Analytical strategies for characterizing organic paint media using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Acc. Chem. Res. 43, 715–727, https://doi.org/10.1021/ar900185f (2010).
Chiavari, G. & Prati, S. Analytical pyrolysis as diagnostic tool in the investigation of works of art. Chromatographia 58, 543–554, https://doi.org/10.1365/s10337-003-0094-7 (2003).
Blau, K. & Halket, J. M. Handbook of Derivatives for Chromatography. Second edition edn, (John Wiley and Sons, 1993).
Rontani, J. F. & Aubert, C. Trimethylsilyl transfer during electron ionization mass spectral fragmentation of some ω-hydroxycarboxylic and ω-dicarboxylic acid trimethylsilyl derivatives and the effect of chain length. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 18, 1889–1895, https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.1567 (2004).
Pastorova, I., van der Berg, K. J., Boon, J. J. & Verhoeven, J. W. Analysis of oxidized diterpenoid acids using thermally assisted methylation with TMAH. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 43, 41–57, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(97)00058-2 (1997).
van Keulen, H. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry methods applied for the analysis of a Round Robin sample containing materials present in samples of works of art. Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 284, 162–169, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijms.2009.03.007 (2009).
Cnuts, D. et al. Fingerprinting glues using HS-SPME GC×GC–HRTOFMS: A new powerful method allows tracking glues back in time. Archaeometry 60, 1361–1376, https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12364 (2018).
Guo, X.-H. et al. Molecular characterization of a middle/low-temperature coal tar by multiple mass spectrometries. Fuel 306, 121435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121435 (2021).
Perrault, K. A. et al. A new approach for the characterization of organic residues from stone tools using GC×GC-TOFMS. Separations 3, 16, https://doi.org/10.3390/separations3020016 (2016).
Hamm, S., Bleton, J., Connan, J. & Tchapla, A. A chemical investigation by headspace SPME and GC-MS of volatile and semi-volatile terpenes in various olibanum samples. Phytochemistry 66, 1499–1514, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2005.04.025 (2005).
Hamm, S., Bleton, J. & Tchapla, A. Headspace solid phase microextraction for screening for the presence of resins in Egyptian archaeological samples. J. Separative Sci. 27, 235–243, https://doi.org/10.1002/jssc.200301611 (2004).
Hamm, S., Lesellier, E., Bleton, J. & Tchapla, A. Optimization of headspace solid phase microextraction for gas chromatography / mass spectrometry analysis of widely different volatility and polarity terpenoids in olibanum. J. Chromatogr. A 1018, 73–83, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2003.08.027 (2003).
Regert, M., Alexandre, V., Thomas, N. & Lattuati-Derieux, A. Molecular characterisation of birch bark tar by headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: A new way for identifying archaeological glues. J. Chromatogr. A 1101, 245–253, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2005.09.070 (2006).
Lokker, A., Stefanuto, P.-H., Cnuts, D., Rots, V. & Focant, J.-F. Optimization of dynamic headspace sampling conditions for the identification of paleolithic adhesives. Separation Sci 7, e202400085. https://doi.org/10.1002/sscp.202400085 (2024).
Ma, X.-M., Lu, R. & Miyakoshi, T. Application of pyrolysis gas chromatography/mass spectrometry in lacquer research: A review. Polymers 6, 132–144 (2014).
Chiavari, G., Fabbri, D. & Prati, S. Characterisation of natural resins by pyrolysis – silylation. Chromatographia 55, 611–616, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02492910 (2002).
Holloway, P. J. The composition of suberin from the corks of Quercus suber L. and Betula pendula roth. Chem. Phys. Lipids 9, 158–170, https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-3084(72)90011-4 (1972).
Nip, M. et al. Analysis of modern and fossil plant cuticles by Curie point Py-GC and Curie point Py-GC-MS: Recognition of a new, highly aliphatic and resistant biopolymer. Org. Geochem. 10, 769–778, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0146-6380(86)80014-6 (1986).
Bertelli, I. et al. What doesn’t meet the eye: Molecular insights into adhesive technologies of Neolithic harvesting tools from Central-North Italy. Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 17, 168, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-025-02280-w (2025).
Rhourrhi-Frih, B. et al. Classification of natural resins by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry using chemometric analysis. J. Chromatogr. A 1256, 177–190, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2012.07.050 (2012).
Scalarone, D., Van Der Horst, J., Boon, J. J. & Chiantore, O. Direct-temperature mass spectrometric detection of volatile terpenoids and natural terpenoid polymers in fresh and artificially aged resins. J. Mass Spectrom. 38, 607–617, https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.470 (2003).
Guerrini, C. et al. Focusing on Volatile Organic Compounds of Natural Resins by Selected-Ion Flow Tube-Mass Spectrometry. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 33, 1465–1473, https://doi.org/10.1021/jasms.2c00042 (2022).
La Nasa, J. et al. Archaeology of the invisible: The scent of Kha and Merit. J. Archaeol. Sci. 141, 105577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2022.105577 (2022).
La Nasa, J. et al. SIFT-ing archaeological artifacts: Selected ion flow tube-mass spectrometry as a new tool in archaeometry. Talanta 207, 120323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2019.120323 (2020).
Palmblad, M., van Eck, N. J. & Bergquist, J. Capillary electrophoresis – A bibliometric analysis. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 159, 116899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2022.116899 (2023).
Kaml, I. & Kenndler, E. Characterization of natural organic binding media in museum objects by capillary electrophoresis. Curr. Anal. Chem. 3, 33–40, https://doi.org/10.2174/157341107779314226 (2007).
Ahmadi, S., Craig, D. B. & Goltz, D. M. Micellar electrokinetic chromatography with laser-induced fluorescence detection for separation of red and yellow historical dyes. Chromatography 1, 9–23 (2014).
Ganzera, M., Stöggl, W. M., Bonn, G. K., Khan, I. A. & Stuppner, H. Capillary electrochromatography of boswellic acids in Boswellia serrata Roxb. J. Sep. Sci. 26, 1383–1388, https://doi.org/10.1002/jssc.200301562 (2003).
Doménech-Carbó, M. T. Novel analytical methods for characterising binding media and protective coatings in artworks. Anal. Chim. Acta 621, 109–139, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2008.05.056 (2008).
Stuart, B. H. in Analytical Techniques in Materials Conservation 296-340 (2007).
Saverwyns, S. & Berghe, I. V. in Analytical Archaeometry (eds H Edwards & P Vandenabeele) 0 (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2012).
Luong, J. H. T., Rigby, T., Male, K. B. & Bouvrette, P. Separation of resin acids using cyclodextrin-modified capillary electrophoresis. Electrophoresis 20, 1546–1554 (1999).
Qi, S., Ding, L., Tian, K., Chen, X. & Hu, Z. Novel and simple nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis separation and determination bioactive triterpenes in Chinese herbs. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 40, 35–41, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2005.06.003 (2006).
Gao, R. et al. Simultaneous determination of oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, quercetin and apigenin in Swertia mussotii Franch by capillary zone electrophoresis with running buffer modifier. Biomed. Chromatogr. 29, 402–409, https://doi.org/10.1002/bmc.3290 (2015).
Jensen, T. Z. T. et al. A 5700 year-old human genome and oral microbiome from chewed birch pitch. Nat. Commun. 10, 5520. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13549-9 (2019).
White, A. E. et al. Ancient DNA and biomarkers from artefacts: insights into technology and cultural practices in Neolithic Europe. Proc. R. Soc. B: Biol. Sci. 292, 20250092. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2025.0092 (2025).
Matheson, C. D. & McCollum, A. J. Characterising native plant resins from Australian Aboriginal artefacts using ATR-FTIR and GC/MS. J. Archaeol. Sci. 52, 116–128, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.08.016 (2014).
Decq, L. et al. Quality control of natural resins used in historical European lacquer reconstructions with some reflections on the composition of sandarac resin (Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Mast. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 158, 105159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105159 (2021).
Dellaportas, P., Papageorgiou, E. & Panagiaris, G. Museum factors affecting the ageing process of organic materials: review on experimental designs and the INVENVORG project as a pilot study. Herit. Sci. 2, 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/2050-7445-2-2 (2014).
Timoncini, A., Brattich, E., Bernardi, E., Chiavari, C. & Tositti, L. Safeguarding outdoor cultural heritage materials in an ever-changing troposphere: Challenges and new guidelines for artificial ageing test. J. Cult. Herit. 59, 190–201, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2022.12.003 (2023).
Colombini, M. P. et al. A round robin exercise in archaeometry: analysis of a blind sample reproducing a seventeenth century pharmaceutical ointment. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 401, 1847–1860, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-011-5105-1 (2011).
Deghetaldi, K. The Organic Analysis of Artworks: Early Challenges and Future Directions. West. Assoc. Art. Conserv. 34, 12 (2012).
Georgiou, R. et al. Disentangling the chemistry of Australian plant exudates from a unique historical collection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 119, e2116021119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2116021119 (2022).
Ebert, B. & Schilling, M. R. A technical analysis of paint media used in twentieth-century Vietnamese lacquer paintings. Stud. Conserv. 61, 52–67, https://doi.org/10.1080/00393630.2016.1227051 (2016).
de Carvalho Lopes, D. & Steidle Neto, A. J. in Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry Vol. 80 (eds João Lopes & Clara Sousa) 105-125 (Elsevier, 2018).
Chen, S. et al. Classification of archaeological adhesives from Eastern Europe and Urals by ATR-FT-IR spectroscopy and chemometric analysis. Archaeometry 64, 227–244, https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12686 (2022).
Kozowyk, P. R. B., Poulis, J. A. & Langejans, G. H. J. Suberin-related Bands Identified with FTIR are Unreliable to Differentiate Neanderthal Tar Production Strategies. J. Paleolithic Archaeol. 8, 41, https://doi.org/10.1007/s41982-025-00249-8 (2025).
Mann, A. K., Appadoo, D., Lenehan, C. E. & Popelka-Filcoff, R. S. Combining ATR far- and mid-infrared spectroscopy to distinguish native Australian plant exudates for cultural heritage analysis. J. Archaeol. Sci. 176, 106167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2025.106167 (2025).
Rubini, M. et al. Comparison of the performances of handheld and benchtop near infrared spectrometers: Application on the quantification of chemical components in maritime pine (Pinus Pinaster) resin. Talanta 221, 121454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121454 (2021).
Koch, T. J. et al. Differences in birch tar composition are explained by adhesive function in the central European Iron Age. PLoS One 19, e0301103, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301103 (2024).
Decq, L. et al. Nontargeted pattern recognition in the search for pyrolysis gas chromatography/mass spectrometry resin markers in historic lacquered objects. Anal. Chem. 91, 7131–7138, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.9b00240 (2019).
Huber, B., Vassão, D. G., Roberts, P., Wang, Y. V. & Larsen, T. Chemical Modification of Biomarkers through Accelerated Degradation: Implications for Ancient Plant Identification in Archaeo-Organic Residues. Molecules 27, 3331, https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27103331 (2022).
Medeghini, L., Mignardi, S., De Vito, C. & Conte, A. M. Evaluation of a FTIR data pretreatment method for Principal Component Analysis applied to archaeological ceramics. Microchem. J. 125, 224–229, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2015.11.033 (2016).
Hayek, E. W. H. et al. GC/MS and chemometrics in archaeometry. Fresenius. J. Anal. Chem. 340, 153–156, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00324471 (1991).
Van den Berg, K. J., Boon, J. J., Pastorova, I. & Spetter, L. F. M. Mass spectrometric methodology for the analysis of highly oxidized diterpenoid acids in old master paintings. J. Mass Spectrom. 35, 512–533 (2000).
Whitten, J. et al. Varnishes and Surface Coatings: Low Molecular Weight Varnishes, <https://www.conservation-wiki.com/wiki/Varnishes_and_Surface_Coatings:_Low_Molecular_Weight_Varnishes> (1997).
Umekar, M. J. & Yeole, P. G. Characterization and evaluation of natural copal gum-resin as film forming material. Int. J. Green Pharmacy 2. https://doi.org/10.22377/ijgp.v2i1.394 (2008).
Morkhade, D. M. Evaluation of gum mastic (Pistacia lentiscus) as a microencapsulating and matrix forming material for sustained drug release. Asian J. Pharm. Sci. 12, 424–432, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajps.2017.05.002 (2017).
Birkett, A. Conifer Families Evolution and Distribution, <https://www.treeguideuk.co.uk/conifer-families/> (2025).
Ran, J.-H., Shen, T.-T., Wu, H., Gong, X. & Wang, X.-Q. Phylogeny and evolutionary history of Pinaceae updated by transcriptomic analysis. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 129, 106–116, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2018.08.011 (2018).
Ku, S. & Mun, S. P. Characterization of pyrolysis tar derived from lignocellulosic biomass. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 12, 853–861 (2006).